Surveying Books

                                   * DEFINITIONS Earth's surface                           The earth is not a true sphere and is slightly flattened at the poles. Its polar axis is somewhat smaller in length (about 43.45 km) than that of its equatorial axis. Any section of the earth parallel to the equator is a circle and any of its section parallel through the poles is an ellipse. Such a figure may be generated by revolving about its minor axis and is called an oblate spheroid. Precisely, the equatorial section is also slightly elliptical and therefore such a figure should be called an ellipsoid. Precise observations indicate that the southern hemisphere is a trifle larger than the northern. Therefore, all the polar sections are oval and can be called ovaloid.                    ...

      FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS      *INTRODUCTION Surveying is one of the oldest arts practised by man. History reveals that the principles and practises of surveying were used, consciously or unconsciously, even in the primitive ages, albeit in a crude manner. In the past few decades, however, these have become more rational and channelised. The introduction and practise of surveying is indispensable to all branches of engineering. The training that a student receives, irrespective of his branch of engineering, in the art of observing, recording and computing data, as well as in the study of errors, their causes and effects, directly contribute to his success in other professional courses. He develops inter alia qualities such as self-reliance, initiative and the ability to get along with others. This also helps an engineer get acquainted with the reasonable limits of accuracy and the value of significant figures. A knowledge of the limits of accuracy ca...